Commentaries on Catullus Poetry (Poems 72 & 42) Essay Example for Free

Commentaries on Catullus Poetry (Poems 72 42) Essay There is great nuance and sensitivity in poem 72. We are told very early in the poem that it is addressed to Lesbia, Catullus love to whom a moderate number of poems in the collection are addressed (or concern). Earlier Lesbia poems had shown Catullus simple and insatiable love for my girl1 in very romantic language: for example, the lines describing the number of times he wished that they could kiss, in poem 5, which caused Aurelius and Furius to describe Catullus as a sissy poet2. However, in poem 70 we begin to see Catullus feelings for Lesbia turn sour as he tells us that a womans words to her lover are as trustworthy as those written on wind or water after presumably disbelieving her when she told him that there was no one she would rather marry than him, not even if asked by Jove himself3. If we assume that Lesbia was Clodia Metelli, we know that she was already married, so if her words are not suggesting that she has become available, she must be describing an unfulfillable wish and it is perhaps the fact that she says these words but is unable to act on her marriage vow which causes Catullus to be so untrusting4. Compared to the outbursts of joy and fury in the poems of what has been described as the first book, poem 72 is much cooler and more analytical5: Catullus here seems to be writing from his head rather than this heart. He uses, in the poem, two striking, and contrasting, similes to try to understand his love for Lesbia. He loved her (note the past tense) as a common might love his girlfriend (72.3), but in addition to that he loved her also as a father might his sons and sons-in-law (72.4). This is touching because it obviously implies that the latter relationship might be closer, with more of a connection, than the former, and, most importantly, that Lesbia was as dear to him as a son would have been, his own flesh and blood. Wray finds this comparison interesting because it is evidence against the long-standing assumption that Roman paternity was a tyrannical and grimly loveless exercise [of parental power]6 However, from here on in, the tone of love and affection darkens to one of cynicism. Now that he knows Lesbia he is has less affection for the woman. Catullus uses the language of obligation and Lesbia, as he sees it, has wronged him7. The poem ends with the enigmatic but powerful statement that, because of the hurt she has caused him, Catullus loves Lesbia more, but likes her less. At first, this may seem like nonsense and a contradiction in terms. However, when Catullus uses the verb amare (to love) he is describing his attraction to her, a kind of lust or natural allure, something that he seemingly has no control over. As much, then, as he does not like Lesbia for what she has put him through (i.e. her adultery), his love for her remains from the simpler time when he wished to kiss you just so many kisses (7.9) Poem 85 is where Catullus perhaps expresses the ambiguity and seeming contradiction inherent in his feelings best: I hate and I love. Perhaps youre asking why I do that? I dont know, but I feel it happening, and am racked. We can again see here clearly that Catullus is less a master than a subject8 of his emotions. The fact that he paints himself as being so emotionally powerless gives such poems as these a tragic quality; it also, arguably, helps to make Catullus such a universal poet who can still touch people through the ages. Poem 73 also carries some of the injustice that Catullus had expressed in 72: the attack on a friend who is probably Rufus (though we do not realise that the poem is addressed to him until it becomes evident later in the collection) is because he has returned honest kindness with no more than ingratitude. We now realise why the lampoons on Rufus alternated with Lesbia-poems at 69-72.9 This whole section of Catullus collection is a study of betrayal and adverse emotions. In the very first line of poem 72, Catullus talks about himself in the third-person, and this seems to be a literary device which emphasises the fact that he is not in control: it is Lesbia (and her actions) who is the subject of the poem. By declaring that his passion is more intense (72.5) Catullus leads us to think that he is about to, also, tell us how much he therefore loves Lesbia. However, by introducing the dichotomy in the last line between his love and dislike for Lesbia, our expectations are finally overthrown, which makes the contrast seem to be huge. It is by means of literary effects such as these that Catullus manages to express the almost inexpressible nuance of his emotion. This poem, ultimately, is most successful when read as part of the collection, as one can then draw links between the subtle issues in the Lesbia poems and see the complex web of emotions that Catullus paints for us. The development from a romantic, devoting relationship between Lesbia and Catullus to the trauma of that relationship breaking down is fascinating, and may reflect the emotions of millions of people alive today in similar situations. Poem XLII This poem is perhaps most interesting because it in itself can be seen as an imitation of the Roman practice of flagitatio10, which was a form of popular justice involving a crowd surrounding the man suspected of wrongdoing (or his house) whilst shouting roughly rhythmical phrases in unflattering language, demanding redress11. This was a very effective tactic because in a small community fear of defamation was strong; though it did, of course, rely on having friends willing to engage in the practice in order for what was seen as justice to be done. In this case, Catullus tells us that the crime was the theft of a notebook and the subsequent refusal to return it12. We can only speculate about the girl who stole them (though it has been inferred from the fact that she is described as an adulteress13 that she may well be Lesbia) and we also have just as little knowledge about what Catullus stolen notebook may have contained (and why it seems to be so precious to him): we may guess that it contained poetry, but that is no more than a guess. If that were true, the first two lines would contain a sweet irony: Catullus deploys poetry himself, hendecasyllables, as his flagitatio mob. He orders the hendecasyllables to come from everywhere (42.2), to metaphorically surround her. The image is an intimidating one: the lines of poetry have become men enclosing in on the suspect, shouting about her crime. When Catullus demands, Dirty adulteress, give back the notebook. Give back the notebook, dirty adulteress (42.11-12), he is using a technique common to flagitatio: the reversal of word order belonged to a very old popular custom as a means of intensifying the demand14. Catullus readership, we can surely assume, would have been aware of such devices and would at once have understood what Catullus was doing. Between the demands for the notebook, there is much invective and abuse hurled at the girl. Catullus tells us that she has an ugly gait, a face like a Gallican puppys (42.9) and is a filthy trollop (42.13) and a brazen bitch-face (42.17). Newman describes this as a fine example of carnival caricature included for primarily humorous effect15. However, it is not hard to see how these lines could be intended to have a hurtful effect, too, shaming the thief into repentance. Catullus is also all too aware of his social superiority10 and may simply be arrogantly showing his self-importance by making such a fuss over the loss of his notebook. This idea can be seen in, for example, poem 84, in which Catullus mocks Arrius incorrect use of aspirates which is surely caused by the politicians less privileged upbringing: Catullus attack, in this case as could be argued is the case in poem 42, is really then a display of his own aristocratic superiority. There is also a general link with poems such as 46, in which Catullus advertises his social status by documenting his travels with a sense of entitlement to faraway Roman lands. Perhaps the most pleasing feature of this poem is its conclusion. After all the fortissimo shouting, invective and carmina (chanting typical of flagitatio16), Catullus decides that he needs to change tone and tactics (42.22). He thus, seemingly sarcastically, ends the poem by asking for the notebook not by calling her a dirty adulteress but a virtuous lady (42.24), as we see that his invective has, somewhat comically, failed in its objective. On the other hand, the last line could more literally be interpreted as an acknowledgement of the flaws of this kind of public system of obtaining restitution. It does not seem unlikely that the girl would have responded more positively to flattery than flagitatio: Catullus could thus be making a wider point about the role of invective in society. The poem, in the collection, sits between invective poems on either side of it, with the previous three poems containing invective, some quite rude and obscene: in poem 43, for example, Mamurras mistress is described as being ugly from head to toe and, in poem 41, Ameana is called the female fuck-up. Perhaps, then, poem 42 is in the perfect location to show Catullus invective being tempered: it is in that poem that he shows that such anger does not always produce the desired effects. In poems 41 and 43, however, we are not shown any consequences of Catullus airing his opinions. We are simply told, in each, that there is an ugly girl in whom he is not interested: there is not intended to be the nuance and comedy value that poem 42 contains. To conclude, Catullus adopting the form of flagitatio for this poem underscores the poets association with the traditional purposes and values inherent in Roman invective17; not only does he derive authority from the tradition of the technique, but it also allows him to attack her harshly and eloquently. However, ultimately, he couldnt force a blush from, in Catullus words, the brazen bitch-face. We, therefore, see the limitations of invective: perhaps Catullus is admitting to us that we should see it as little more than entertainment. More importantly, though, the twist at the end of the poem is of stylistic and comedic value and can, perhaps, be said to show Catullus eloquence. Moreover, the fact that he feels no qualms at using such openly offensive language can be attributed to the fact that Romans would surely have sympathised with his demands for justice in face of a thief and may, also, be a reflection of his superior social status (not to mention the lower regard with which women were held generally) and consequent security in his right to show his anger in whatever way that he pleased. Ultimately, the poem makes character assassination into an appealing and technically adept art. Bibliography Dyson, J.T. (2007). The Lesbia Poems, in M.B. Skinner (ed.), A Companion to Catullus (Oxford) 254-275. Fitzgerald, W. (1999). Catullan Provocations: Lyric Poetry and the Drama of Position. London. Fraenkel, E. (1961). Catullus XLII, in J.H. Gaisser (ed.), Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Catullus (Oxford) 356-368. Newman, J.K. (1990). Roman Catullus. Bodenheim. Selden, D.L. (1992). Catullus and the Rhetoric of Performance, in J.H. Gaisser (ed.), Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Catullus (Oxford) 490-559. Tatum, W.J. (2007). Social Commentary and Political Invective, in M.B. Skinner, A Companion to Catullus (Oxford) 333-354. Wiseman, T.P. (1985). Catullus and his World: A Reappraisal. Cambridge. Wray, D. (2001). Catullus and the Poetics of Roman Manhood. Cambridge. 1 Catullus 2.1. 2 cf. Catullus 16. 3 Catullus 70.2. 4 Dyson (2007) 269. 5 Wiseman (1985) 166. 6 Wray (2001) 112. 7 Fitzgerald (1999) 117. 8 Selden (1992) 541. 9 Wiseman (1985) 167. 10 Fitzgerald (1999) 62. 11 Fraenkel (1961) 364. 12 Catullus 42.4 (refuses to give me our notebook back). 13 Catullus 42.12 14 Fraenkel (1961) 363. 15 Newman (1990) 192. 16 Fraenkel (1961) 364. 17 Tatum (2007) 337.

Charles Dickens Great Expectations Essay -- Great Expectations Essays

Charles Dickens' Great Expectations Charles Dickens wrote Great Expectations in 1860-1861 when he was in London. It is set in the mid nineteenth century, in Kent, and London. The basic plot of Great Expectations is: Pip, a young orphan living with his sister and her husband in the marshes of Kent, sits in a cemetery one evening looking at his parents' tombstones. Suddenly, an escaped convict springs up from behind a tombstone, grabs Pip, and orders him to bring him food and a file for his leg irons. Pip obeys, but the fearsome convict is soon captured anyway. The convict protects Pip by claiming to have stolen the items himself. One day his uncle takes him to Miss Havishams house to play. A few years later he is apprenticed to his sisters husband. One-day pip is told that he is to live in London and has great expectations thanks to a secret friend. A couple of years after this the convict comes back to pip and tells him that he is the person that has been supplying all the money to him and that ever since Pip help him he promised himself that he would make Pip a gentleman. Pip is appalled at this but helps the convict to escape back to Australia. Before the convict escapes he is caught is put back into prison, he gets ill and dies. Before he dies he tells Pip that he has a daughter who was put up for adoption when she was a baby. Pip believes this to be Estella (who he used to play with at miss Havishams house and is in love with her). Miss havisham has died and has left her money to the pockets. Pip decides to go abroad with his friend to work. After some have past Pip comes back home where he goes to Miss Havishams old house where he finds Estella. He finds her coldness and hardness has been repl... ...d social status. This idea soon changes when Pip gets to London. He tries to be a gentleman when he reaches London but soon realises that he has a lot to learn and soon he starts to hate his past, the way he was brought up. After time he begins to hate Joe and the way he makes his living, but when Magwitch tells him who gave the order for him to become a gentleman, he starts to think about himself and what he has become. Then he remembers where his roots are, and who his family are. This is when he realises there's two types of gentleman the good type that he wanted to become and the bad type the one he has become. Only when he helps to save Magwitchs life by putting his own in danger he becomes a true gentleman. Also I think Dickens wanted us to remember where are roots are and who our true family and friends, by the time we had finished reading the book. Charles Dickens' Great Expectations Essay -- Great Expectations Essays Charles Dickens' Great Expectations Charles Dickens wrote Great Expectations in 1860-1861 when he was in London. It is set in the mid nineteenth century, in Kent, and London. The basic plot of Great Expectations is: Pip, a young orphan living with his sister and her husband in the marshes of Kent, sits in a cemetery one evening looking at his parents' tombstones. Suddenly, an escaped convict springs up from behind a tombstone, grabs Pip, and orders him to bring him food and a file for his leg irons. Pip obeys, but the fearsome convict is soon captured anyway. The convict protects Pip by claiming to have stolen the items himself. One day his uncle takes him to Miss Havishams house to play. A few years later he is apprenticed to his sisters husband. One-day pip is told that he is to live in London and has great expectations thanks to a secret friend. A couple of years after this the convict comes back to pip and tells him that he is the person that has been supplying all the money to him and that ever since Pip help him he promised himself that he would make Pip a gentleman. Pip is appalled at this but helps the convict to escape back to Australia. Before the convict escapes he is caught is put back into prison, he gets ill and dies. Before he dies he tells Pip that he has a daughter who was put up for adoption when she was a baby. Pip believes this to be Estella (who he used to play with at miss Havishams house and is in love with her). Miss havisham has died and has left her money to the pockets. Pip decides to go abroad with his friend to work. After some have past Pip comes back home where he goes to Miss Havishams old house where he finds Estella. He finds her coldness and hardness has been repl... ...d social status. This idea soon changes when Pip gets to London. He tries to be a gentleman when he reaches London but soon realises that he has a lot to learn and soon he starts to hate his past, the way he was brought up. After time he begins to hate Joe and the way he makes his living, but when Magwitch tells him who gave the order for him to become a gentleman, he starts to think about himself and what he has become. Then he remembers where his roots are, and who his family are. This is when he realises there's two types of gentleman the good type that he wanted to become and the bad type the one he has become. Only when he helps to save Magwitchs life by putting his own in danger he becomes a true gentleman. Also I think Dickens wanted us to remember where are roots are and who our true family and friends, by the time we had finished reading the book.

Nomads on Notice Essay

In â€Å"Nomads on Notice,† anthropologist Daniel Stiles describes the changing lifestyle of the Gabbra pastoralist. They are one of the numerous nomadic societies that are at odds with the industrial world. The unforgiving territory of Northern Kenya is divided among several tribes. They are all very fierce when it comes to defending their territory. This is very similar to what we have learned in class, relating to the Warrior Groups. The Warrior Groups are usually young males, around twelve years of age, whom protect their land, animals, and people. This region consists of 35,000 Gabbra pastoralists. They claim the dry and salty mud flats of the Chalbi Desert and the eastern shore of Lake Turkana. The Gabbra must move often, up to ten times a year. This is due to the scarcity and temporary nature of water sources and vegetation. Camps would usually split and travel in smaller groups to accommodate the carrying capacity of the land. This is considered Pastoralism, another topic we have learned in class. Pastoralism is the ownership and control over domesticated animals that appear to be about ten thousand. They have more material items than hunting and gathering, but not as much as agriculturalists do. The Gabbra have very few possessions and can pack a settlement and be on their way within a number of hours. Gabbra societies are lead by married men. Their levels of authority are based on their age, how old they are. The main animals of Gabbra society are camels, goats, cattle, and sheep. The animals that provide milk are usually kept at the main camp. The animals that do not give milk are sent off to distant camps called fora, to prevent overgrazing. The fora serve as the border of tribal territories and they are run by young warriors, so they can prevent raids by other tribes. Pastoral societies travel in small groups, usually less than one hundred. They travel frequently, usually every season, to find the most nourishing land for their livestock. In class, we have learned the same, such as they are nomadic with a seasonal around and they move and travel every season. Approximately one hundred through five hundred people will move together at a time. It is also heard for them to engage in a limited amount of horticulture. In class, we have learned that the term horticulture is control over land that they use no tools or factors whatsoever. Everything is done by hand, which means no irrigation or complex machinery. Almost all Pastoral societies consist of all male. In order to fulfill excellent labor needs, the Gabbra rely on their extended kinship and social ties for help. People have large families and live as extended families in large households. Each male in the household may have a different herd to care for. Their duties and tasks may be paid for with food or stock offspring. People may obtain animals as gifts, inheritance, or on a loan. Due to this, it is difficult to figure exactly how many animals one Gabbra may own. The Gabbra does not allow someone to obtain more animals than he and his dependents actually need. If someone exceeds of their livestock, he would redistribute them to the needy as loans or gifts. We have also learned this in class, redistribution. Redistribution is where goods and services are sent to a central authority, and then given out to those who need it. This system of redistribution minimizes the burden placed on the environment. The Gabbra usually store small portions of food, because they are in short supply. Although they are in short supply, the foods that they store can be kept for long periods of time. The recent problems that the Gabbra are facing are nothing new, but they are being heavily influenced to deal with them in much different manners by Westerners. Foreign relief services, missionaries, and government officials are not only providing food relief, but they are telling the Gabbra that their way of life is backwards and primitive. This is an example of ethnocentrism, which is when one culture believes that another culture is wrong and their culture is superior. The lifestyle of the Gabbra can improve if the rain returns and neighboring countries regain stability. If the conditions do not improve, the Gabbra may be forced to change their way of life altogether. Many cultures have been destroyed or nearly destroyed, because of assimilation. People who attempt to assist Gabbra must understand that they must accept their way of life and not change it. References: http://www.questia.com/library/1P3-4957983/nomads-on-notice http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/9308230122/nomads-notice

Aristotle Is A Well Renowned Philosopher That Lived And

Aristotle is a well renowned philosopher that lived and taught in Greece during the time of 350 B.C. He was a student of Plato, yet is famous for rejecting Plato’s theory of forms. He was both a prolific writer in addition to a polymath and expanded the knowledge of numerous areas of study. He even classified a multitude of distinctions for different aspects of knowledge that are still in use today such as mathematics and biology. Aristotle was the first to develop a formalized system of logic which was based on the structure of an argument rather than its contents. Aristotle created some 200 treatises of which only 31 survive in a manuscript format instead of how Aristotle would lecture them to his students. He was well known for his†¦show more content†¦Why are humans able to reason? It is because they have a rational soul. Then why do they have a rational soul? It is because they are able to reason. Henceforth the argument is of circular logic. It does however give us a classification for different categories of life which is important in Aristotle s delvings into the sciences. Aristotle lacked the technical and conceptual tools utilized by modern science in his endeavors to explain why something is true instead of the statement that something it is true. Utilizing the Aristotelian invention of syllogism, Aristotle’s logic followed that if the premises for an explanation of a phenomena is valid, as is the form, then the conclusion will be that of scientific truth. While Aristotle erred in his findings in many of the various scientific realms, such as a geocentric versus heliocentric solar system, his scientific application of syllogism gave way to modern scientific empiricism which is the idea that an abstract argument must be supported by factual evidence and for the theory to be judged by a tribunal of observation. 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Capital Punishment The Death Penalty Essay - 1426 Words

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Capital punishment may be defined as the â€Å"[e]xecution of an offender sentenced to death after conviction by a court of law of a criminal offense† (Capital Punishment). Up until 1846, when Michigan became the first to abolish the death sentence, all states allowed legal practice of capital punishment by the government (States). Currently, there 32 states still supporting the death penalty and 18Read MoreThe Death Penalty Of Capital Punishment1480 Words   |  6 Pagesjustice system, such as the death penalty. Capital punishment has been used many times in history all around the world, and it was quite popular. Many people argue that capital punishment is useful in deterring crime and that it is only fair that criminals receive death as punishment for a heinous crim e. On the contrary, others see the death penalty as a violation of the 8th amendment. It restricts excessive fines, and it also does not allow cruel and unusual punishment to be inflicted upon criminals

William Shakespeare s The Tempest Essay - 987 Words

â€Å"The rarer action is in virtue than in vengeance† (5.1.35-36). This quote from scene five of the Tempest gives the reader a glimpse of Shakespeare’s message regarding humanity. To be human means more than to have two feet, breathe in your lungs, and the ability to communicate. To be human is a choice. Being human means showing compassion and love for those around you. In the play the Tempest, Prospero struggles with his humanity. He possesses inhuman abilities that cause him to lose sight of the good qualities of human nature. The word human has more than one definition according to the Oxford English Dictionary. The most basic term, which we are all familiar with, is â€Å"Of the nature of the human race; that is a human, or consists of human beings; belonging to the species Homo sapiens† (Oxford English Dictionary). However, another definition of human is â€Å"Of, relating to, or characteristic of humans as distinguished from God or gods† (Oxford English Dictionary). This definition is pointing out the distinct difference between humans and gods. Along with this definition, a similar excerpt in the Oxford English Dictionary distinguishes between humans and animals stating â€Å"Of, relating to, or distinctive of people as distinguishes from other animals† (Oxford English Dictionary). The Oxford English Dictionary makes a point to differentiate between humans and creatures or gods. This relates back to the Tempest due to the variety of beings on the island. In the Tempest, the wordSh ow MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeare s The Tempest1267 Words   |  6 Pagesaudience. During the Enlightenment Era, William Shakespeare’s writing were a form of social commentary on the English Government. Endorsed by the king, Shakespeare’s works told tales of tragedy and whimsy, incorporating both fiction and nonfiction elements. One trademark of Shakespeare s plays were the subtle allusions to the concurrent events in the English government. This is evident in his well known and final play, The Tempest. The story of The Tempest tells the tale of Prospero, a fallen dukeRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Tragicomedy The Tempest1935 Words   |  8 Pagesstand alone, frequently including elements from other influences. William Shakespeare’s tragicomedy The Tempest (c:1611) is a play that uses intertextuality to enhance ideas about natural order. Banished to an island, Prospero, the rightful Duke of Milan, conjures up a tempest that brings him his usurping brother, Ant onio in an attempt to restore his Dukedom. The play’s amalgamation of tragicomedy and the pastoral genre allows Shakespeare to warn his audience about unbalance, criticising the lavish lifestyleRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Tempest1256 Words   |  6 PagesWilliam Shakespare’s The Tempest introduces a dynamic and colorful protagonist, Prospero. Throughout the play, he establishes himself as a multi dimensional character. Prospero’s interaction with other characters in the play is vital in uncovering the many different sides of his personality. Prospero displays a different part of his personality when he interacts with Caliban, Ariel, and Ferdinand, all of whom are ploys in his master plan to regain his crown. Prospero assimilates his personality toRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Tempest1229 Words   |  5 Pages William Shakespeare most definitely did not reference Jeffrey Jerome Cohen’s Seven Monster Theses when writing his play, The Tempest. One of Cohen’s theses though - thesis four â€Å"The Monster Dwells at the Gates of Difference† - appears quite prominently in Shakespeare’s work. The thesis articulates that monsters are divisive and often arise in a culture to make one group seem superior to another. Further, societies devise monsters in order to create a scapegoat for social and political inequitiesRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Tempest Essay1019 Words   |  5 PagesStephen Greenblatt, believes that antagonists such as Caliban from The Tempest represent more than a source of evil. Some theorists argue that Caliban should been seen as a â€Å"colonial other.† I agree, and in this paper I demonstrate and give prime examples as to why Caliban is misunderstood and depicted as a monster when in fact he should be viewed as a native of the island. According to Greenblatt’s argument, in The Tempest, Caliban should be viewed as a colonial other rather than a universal evilRead Mo reWilliam Shakespeare s The Tempest886 Words   |  4 PagesIn The Tempest, by William Shakespeare, there is a main issue of whether Prospero or Caliban have the better claim to control the island. In act 1, scene 2, we learn that Prospero, Miranda (his daughter), and Caliban are all located on an island. Caliban states, â€Å"This island’s mine by Sycorax my mother, (1.2.331), which means that he has inherited this island from his mother. However, critic Stephen Orgel has argued that â€Å"Power, as Prospero presents it in the play, is not inherited but self-createdRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Tempest947 Words   |  4 PagesIn Shakespeare’s The Tempest, Caliban is the primitive monster who belongs to the bottom of the power hierarchy on the island claimed by Prospero. Caliban, the original inhabitant of the island, unwillingly becomes Prospero’s slave as he uses magic to take control of the island. Prospero sees Caliban as the savage and monster who does not acknowledge the order of civilization despite his efforts to educate him. Caliban appears as an inferior and beast-like figure from nature in the eyes of the civilizedRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Tempest1499 Words   |  6 PagesShakespeare’s play â€Å"The Tempest† outlines many complex characters. One of which was Prospero, former Duke of Milan and powerful sorcerer. Prospero initially portrays a self-involved personality and God-complex but then throughout the course of the play this personality trait transpires into a more pragmatic approach to his life. All of these traits of this character makes it difficult to analyze the true character of Prospero. In the first Act of the play, we see Prospero using sorcery to drum upRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Tempest1469 Words   |  6 PagesThe Tempest brings out the discussion of rule, in this play the theme of rule is prominent, especially in the beginning of the play where the conversation between Prospero and Miranda (his daughter) lead the actions of Prospero, this paper will be analysing the hierarchy of the characters, the definition of justice for Prospero and who’s the king of Milan. Prospero has magical powers which is seen later in the play, the play starts off by the telling the story of the current king and his crew onRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Tempest843 Words   |  4 PagesWilliam Shakespeare was one of the world’s greatest Renaissance era playwrights. His plays were a part of culture in Renaissance England. Everyone from King James to peasants came to see his works. However, his reign was coming to an end. With thirty eight plays written, Shakespeare decided that ‘The Tempest’ was to end his illustrious, prolific career. It is known that throughout this play the word ‘cell’ is used more frequently than in any of Shakespeare’s works. The uses of the word ‘cell’ throughout

Design A Programming Language For Problem †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Design A Programming Language For Problem? Answer: Introduction Pia is a Swahili (Eastern Africa language) name which means another. The name is derived from the need to come up with another more usable and friendly programming language for mobile application development. Pia is a high-level programming language for the purpose of developing cross platform mobile applications. It is an interpreted language which tries to eliminated redundancy and repetition of lines of codes by enhancing the concept of Object Oriented Programming by giving objects power to be used entirely by any conceivable operation or functionality. This language consolidates the thinking of a human being and constructs logic and functionality based on the behavior of the human mind in terms of response and behavior of objects embedded in the constructed programs. It is a hybrid mobile business development language because of the increasing demand for a single, complete and satisfactory language that can develop mobile applications across the mobile operating system divide. The choice of the cross-platform is largely influenced by the mass mobile application users who use different mobile devices but would want exact integration and interconnectivity between those devices without any difficulties hence efficient and effective integration. Its inception was influenced by the increasing concern of mobile application users concerned with the problem of sharing and interconnect mobile devices especially those that are from different operating systems. Pia is a purpose-driven programming language that is event driven purely on the interaction of the activities of the mobile applications under development. It offers the mobile application developers a range of cool and powerful features that enhance their development processes. It is mainly known for the simplicity that it offers to the developers whereby it reduces the average time between the start of a mobile application and its fully production launch. Pia being an interpreted language, its interpreters have been developed for many different operating systems including Windows operating system, Linux, Unix, Mac O among others. It is an open source piece of application that is geared to be improved and enhanced by the vast majority of application developers that stand with the development team that carefully and keenly scrutinize for any grammatical mistakes or improvements of logic representation. Choice and justification of interpretation/compilation methods used Pia is an interpreted programming language, interpreted languages are languages that do not require machine code in order to execute the program; instead, interpreters will run through a program line by line and execute each command unlike compiled languages which are compiled to a machine-readable language before being executed (Krauss, 2017). The choice of the interpretation and compilation methods has been largely influenced by one of the core mission and goal of the language to offer a hybrid platform to offer application developers develop mobile applications for cross platform environments. Therefore, this could only be achieved by a platform independence behavior of a language hence the interpreting choice. Interpreting languages are platform independence that do not rely on the underlying operating system in order to compile its code to a machine-readable format, rather its interpreter can be able to execute the code with ease, efficient and effective way. The need to minimize battery usage in mobile applications has been a huge concern by the users of mobile devices. Mobile applications are developed with powerful functionalities but lack the mechanism to conserve the battery usage because of their intensity in power consumption. This could only force the need to use an interpreted language that produce small program sizes since they have a flexibility to choose instruction executable code. Therefore, it reduces the general power usage in executing the same program on a different compilation method. With the rise in better and efficient programming practices, application developers opt for easy, clear, flexible and dynamic conceptualization of ideas. An incoming programming language therefore has to adhere to competitive market demands of programmers. Interpreting languages offer dynamic scoping and dynamic typing mechanisms which are powerful modern mechanisms that help in writing more understandable codes that are human readable, clear, maintainable, testable and easy to debug. Since Pia programming language reduces the average time in development of the mobile applications, it is therefore crucial to use interpreting language that do not have write, compile or execution cycle hence rapid prototyping. This mechanism will help develop prototype of mobile applications with a few lines of codes that can demonstrate the underlying functionality and behavior of the intended final mobile application hence proper decision marketing is done. Moreover, games can be easily constructed and structured with the help of this method. Memory management. Garbage collection Pia programming language uses automatic mechanisms to recursively run during execution in order to identify any unused memory spaces and allocate them to objects that require intensive memory. A powerful programming language is able to identify memory leakages and automatically do a repair mechanism to prevent more memory leakages (Ravenbrook Limited, 2017). Through the implementation of persistent data structures, Pia programming language uses a garbage collector that reclaims all the unused memory spaces from objects that had been allocated some memory but are not needed anymore for the execution of the application. The garbage collector will also delete any unreferenced objects that are not required by the application, this will not only help in freeing more space for the crucial objects but also it will help in shortening the execution path for faster and efficient running of the programs. Reference Counting Reference counting works in a way that anytime you reference a memory location on the heap, a counter for that particular memory location increments by 1. Every time a reference to that location is deleted, the counter decrements by 1. When that counter gets to 0, then that particular memory location is garbage collected (Krauss, Programming Concepts: Garbage Collection, 2017). This helps in collection of all the unreferenced memory locations that is clogged by unused objects thereby freeing more spaces for the objects that are actively and constantly referenced by the running application. Scoping Scopes in a programming language refer to the visibility of a particular variable or a piece of code either locally or globally in the application execution cycle. A local scope is a piece of code or a variable that is only visible and accessible in the area where it defined while a global scope is a variable of a piece of code that is accessible everywhere in the entire application and can be referenced to be used by any particular calling method for execution purposes. Pia programming language implements both local and global scopes to ensure abstraction of data whereby a variable or a piece of code whenever is declared locally the rest part of the application cannot be able to access or manipulate it whatsoever. In the implementation of programming languages, two types of scopes have been used; static scopes and dynamic scopes. However, Pia implements static scopes as compared to dynamic scopes. When using static scopes, the program that exists in source code is examined without running it first while when using dynamic scopes, one examines the logic behind while executing the program at runtime. Pia programming use static scopes because it is more readable to implement piece of codes statically as opposed to dynamically. It also helps in locality of reasoning in terms of functionality and logic manipulation without losing the track of variables and the flow of logic. Moreover, static scopes have a less run-time overhead as compare to dynamic scopes, this is because the pieces of codes are examined first before evaluated and is referenced in the immediate enclosing piece of code unlike the dynamic scopes which can be reference and called outside their declared area in the application. The pursuit for simplicity in programming languages had not been easy, with the campaigns for everyone to learn programming come at a cost of the designer of programming languages like me to ensure that upcoming languages are both simple to read and simple to understand. Pia programming language uses symbols that are recognizable and easy to relate to any person that has been near a computer. It uses the @ symbol to declare a variable, the @ symbol is common and denotes attachments to human minds, therefore, its usage to declare a variable would mean an attachment of a new variable tot eh program. It will also use diagrams that are familiar to human cognitive understanding when it comes to drag-and-drop menus. The symbols, icons and menus that Pia uses to denote a particular object will symbolize the common noticeable objects in the real world. In computer programming, "orthogonality in a programming language means that a relatively small set of primitive constructs can be combined in a relatively small number of ways to build the control and data structures of the language" (Jens Dietrich, 2013). An orthogonal language enables software developers to independently change one operation of a system, without triggering a ripple effect of changes to subsidiary or dependent operations (TechTarget, 2017). Pia programming language will ensure that different independent modules of the mobile applications are interdependent on other modules but still independent in terms of changes that are done to them or rather manipulative changes that are persisted on them. This programming language combines different small sets of simple data structures such as lists, objects and arrays to form more complex data structures such as trees and heaps. These more complex data structures are then used to implement more complex logic and functionalities of the mobile applications. Like any programming language, Pia involves storing and manipulating data in the processing and execution of the applications. Pia programming language being a loosely-coupled language, does not require the declaration of a data type before a variable. It automatically evaluates the given data and assigns a data type to the variable according to the data type of the data given assigned to the variable. However, all variables are prepended with an @ symbol to denote a declaration of the variable. Some of the data types includes This data type represents a collection of characters that is denoted by either single or double quotes e.g. @name = John Doe This data type represents numerical data. It composes of numbers without decimal places. Its declaration is by the use of numerals without any quotes. e.g. @salary = 120000 This data type represents data that is evaluated on a truth basis of either true of false according to given expression. e.g. @contacted = true @africa == africa This is a data type that represents a collection of related data. It is denoted by []. Data inside the array is separated by commas. e.g. @letters = [a, b, c,] Syntax design is one of the vital concepts that differentiate one programming language from another. It describes the rules that evaluate the correctness of wrongness of a piece of code under the given environment. Pia programming contains may different rules that govern whether a code is executable or not. It therefore has predefined set of rules that are to be followed when writing code for mobile development. Some of the syntax include: Variables are to be declared with a prefix of @ symbol without specifying the data type of the variable because the language is a loosely coupled programming language that evaluate the data type given the data. Examples @message = I am Designing @cost = 50.63 @fruits = [apple, banana, pineapple] Statement termination Pia programming language does not include any symbol to denote a termination of a statement. However, a new line automatically evaluates to a next executable statement. This syntax rule has forced the language to be very strict on indentation in order to determine piece of code under one parent block such as a function. Comments Single line comments in this programming language is implemented by the use of / comment / / declaration of the cost of living / @cost = 124000.55 Multiple lines comments are implemented by the use of / multiple lines comment / Example / declare a variable use the variable in a function define the logic inside the function return the processed result A function is a block of code that execute a single logic of operation and returns a value after its evaluation. The declaration of function in this language is by prepending the word func before the function name and appending (). Functions without arguments have empty appended brackets while those with arguments, have the arguments inside the appended brackets. func area() @length @width = 4 @area = @length * @width return @area func area(@len, @wid) @area = @len * @wid return @area Data abstraction refers to, providing only essential information to the outside world and hiding their background details, i.e., to represent the needed information in program without presenting the details (Tutorials Point, 2017). Through the process of abstraction, a programmer hides all but the relevant data about an object in order to reduce complexity and increase efficiency (Tech Target, 2017). Pia implements a great deal of abstraction of data that involves the separation of their interface from implementation. In order to protect restrict the accessibility of data, Pia has implemented data access level of private, protected and public. Public data is denoted by prepending the @ symbol followed by the word public, e.g. @public fullname, @public area(). Public access level allows the defined data to be accessed anywhere in the application. The data defined under this access level does not have privacy and can be used and manipulated by any piece of code anywhere in the application. However, it helps in the usage of a consistent data across the entire application. Private data is denoted by prepending the @ symbol followed by the word private, e.g. @private firstname, @private perimeter(). Private access level restrict data to be only accessed in a certain class and cannot be accessed outside that defining class. It protects the defined data from being changed or manipulated by other outside classes other than the defining class. Protected data is denoted by prepending the @ symbol followed by the word protected, e.g. @protected lastname, @protected taxation(). Protected access level restrict data to be only access by a child class of the parent class defining the data. This is an essential mechanism of inheritance by which child classes can inherit and use defined data and functions from their corresponding parent classes. This is the ability to write code that is clear, concise, easy to read, easy to understand and avoids repetition. Pia programming language uses basic English to describe a certain expression that anyone can comprehend the logic behind it. in keyword Pia uses the in keyword to evaluate whether an item is present in an array or not. It also uses not in or !in to evaluate that an item is not in the given array. Examples a in [c, d, a] a not in [v, w, x, f] Pia uses the is keyword to evaluate whether a certain variable is of a given data type. Example @a = Letter A / declare a variable a / @a is string Type checking also known as a type system is a collection of rules that assign a property called type to various constructs in a computer program, such as variables, expressions, functions or modules, with the end goal of reducing the number of bugs by verifying that data is represented properly throughout a program (Krauss, Programming Concepts: Static vs. Dynamic Type Checking, 2017). Pia program uses dynamic type checking whereby the type checking is done at run time rather that static type checking where type checking is done at compile time. This implementation does not require one to specify or declare the data type of the variable instead, the language compiler evaluates the given data at run time and assigns the variable a corresponding data type accordingly. @language = French / string declaration / @price = 200 / integer declaration / From the examples above, there is no specification of data type of both language and price but rather the system will evaluate language to be of type string and price to be of type integer at runtime. This is a mechanism that its implementation instructs the program what to do when encountering an unexpected condition. It is a crucial technique that ensures reliability of the developed application. It is a fundamental concept of test driven development, whereby a developed program is ascertained to produce the expected outcome with accuracy. Pia programming uses try-catch block to handle these expectations and raises a necessary executable code to handle the exception. Aliasing is the use of two or more distinct referencing methods or names for the same memory cell (www.cs.ubc.ca, 2017). For example, the following code instantiated an object salon from the user-defined class Salon1 and then introduces an alias BestSalon: Salon1 time = new Salon1() / calls Salon1 constructor / Salon1 BestSalon = salon Later the programmer deletes this object by salon = null; The syntax of Pia programming language uses basic English that anyone can easily understand. The use of in keyword to check if an item exists in an array or not is a good example that explains the usage of comprehensive key words to explain a given logic. The usage of abbreviations derived from a full name of a common used name is a good practice to immediately understand what a piece of code means. The use of func keyword to define a function is another example of what a human being can easily derive without more explanations. Indentation in Pia is a strict syntax rule whereby any executable line of code within a parent function must be indented inside it. This principle helps in the readability of code whereby one can easily identify and differentiate one block of code from another. Pia uses a comment-system that is easy to comprehend whereby a single line comment is denoted by a forward slash and a single quote(/.../) while a multi-line comment is denoted by a forward slash and a double quote(/.../). This helps the reader to easily differentiate between a single and a double comment through the usage of single and double quotes inside the forward slashes. Writability Pia programming language favors a relatively number of data types which facilitates simplicity and orthogonality. This implementation therefore describes the writability ability of the language. It also supports abstraction of data through different access levels. The abstraction of implementation of complex data structures and operations from their interface has facilitated a great deal in ensuring that Pia programming language is writable. Pia has also ensured Expressivity of its logic and expressions. These techniques also help in the writability of the language. Reliability By applying dynamic type checking of data for type errors at runtime, Pia programming language ensures that the developed code does not contain errors which assures proper functioning of the developed mobile application. Pia also supports aliasing at low level, regardless of this being costly dangerous technique, it assures reliability of the program being executed by checking if the aliased name operates similar to the original name with the same memory space. References Jens Dietrich. (2013, May 1). Java Tip: Orthogonality by example. Retrieved from JAVAWORLD: https://www.javaworld.com/article/2078767/open-source-tools/java-tip-orthogonality-by-example.html Krauss, A. (2017). Programming Concepts: Compiled and Interpreted Languages. Retrieved from Aaron Krauss: https://thesocietea.org/2015/07/programming-concepts-compiled-and-interpreted-languages/ Krauss, A. (2017, January 26). Programming Concepts: Garbage Collection. Retrieved from Aaron Krauss: https://thesocietea.org/2017/01/programming-concepts-garbage-collection/ Krauss, A. (2017). Programming Concepts: Static vs. Dynamic Type Checking. Retrieved from AarSome of the syntax include:on Krauss: https://thesocietea.org/2015price to be of type integer at runtime./11/programming-concepts-static-vs-dynamic-type-checking/ Ravenbrook Limited. (2017). Memory management in various languages. Retrieved from Memory Management Reference: https://www.memorymanagement.org/mmref/lang.html Tech Target. (2017). abstraction. Retrieved from Tech Target: https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/abstractio TechTarget. (2017). orthogonal. Retrieved from TechTarget: https://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/orthogonal Tutorials Point. (2017). Data Abstraction in C++. Retrieved from Tutorials Point: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/cplusplus/cpp_data_abstraction.htm www.cs.ubc.ca. (2017). Programming Concepts and Methods for Enhanced Student Learning. Retrieved from www.cs.ubc.ca: https://www.cs.ubc.ca/wccce/Program03/papers/TongXu/TongXu.htm